SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Biomedical engineering</title>

</head>

<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Biomedical engineering</span></span>

</h1>

</header>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the journal known as Biomedical Engineering, see <a href="Meditsinskaya_Tekhnika" title="Meditsinskaya Tekhnika">Meditsinskaya Tekhnika</a>.</div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

<p><b>Biomedical engineering</b> (<b>BME</b>) or <b>medical engineering</b> is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare applications (e.g., diagnostic or therapeutic purposes). BME also integrates the logical sciences to advance health care treatment, including <a href="Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">diagnosis</a>, <a href="Medical_monitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical monitor">monitoring</a>, and <a href="Therapy" title="Therapy">therapy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EnderleBronzino2012_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EnderleBronzino2012-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also included under the scope of a biomedical engineer is the management of current medical equipment in hospitals while adhering to relevant industry standards. This involves procurement, routine testing, preventive maintenance, and making equipment recommendations, a role also known as a Biomedical Equipment Technician (BMET) or as a <a href="Clinical_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical engineer">clinical engineer</a>.

</p><p>Biomedical engineering has recently emerged as its own field of study, as compared to many other engineering fields.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such an evolution is common as a new field transitions from being an <a href="Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinary</a> specialization among already-established fields to being considered a field in itself. Much of the work in biomedical engineering consists of <a href="Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a>, spanning a broad array of subfields (see below). Prominent biomedical engineering applications include the development of <a href="Biocompatibility" title="Biocompatibility">biocompatible</a> <a href="Prosthesis" title="Prosthesis">prostheses</a>, various diagnostic and therapeutic <a href="Medical_device" title="Medical device">medical devices</a> ranging from clinical equipment to micro-implants, imaging technologies such as <a href="MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a> and <a href="EKG" class="mw-redirect" title="EKG">EKG</a>/<a href="Electrocardiography" title="Electrocardiography">ECG</a>, <a href="Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">regenerative</a> tissue growth, and the development of pharmaceutical <a href="Medication" title="Medication">drugs</a> including <a href="Biopharmaceutical" title="Biopharmaceutical">biopharmaceuticals</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subfields_and_related_fields">Subfields and related fields</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></div>

<p><b>Bioinformatics</b> is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data. As an interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combines computer science, statistics, mathematics, and engineering to analyze and interpret biological data.

</p><p>Bioinformatics is considered both an umbrella term for the body of biological studies that use computer programming as part of their methodology, as well as a reference to specific analysis "pipelines" that are repeatedly used, particularly in the field of genomics. Common uses of bioinformatics include the identification of candidate genes and nucleotides (SNPs). Often, such identification is made with the aim of better understanding the genetic basis of disease, unique adaptations, desirable properties (esp. in agricultural species), or differences between populations. In a less formal way, bioinformatics also tries to understand the organizational principles within nucleic acid and protein sequences.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></div>

<p>Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of the mechanical aspects of biological systems, at any level from whole <a href="Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> to <a href="Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a>, <a href="Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> and <a href="Cell_organelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell organelle">cell organelles</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> using the methods of <a href="Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biomaterials">Biomaterials</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">Biomaterial</a></div>

<p>A <b>biomaterial</b> is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with living systems. As a science, <b>biomaterials</b> is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called <b>biomaterials science or biomaterials engineering</b>. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biomedical_optics">Biomedical optics</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Medical_optical_imaging" title="Medical optical imaging">Medical optical imaging</a></div>

<p>Biomedical optics combines the principles of physics, engineering, and biology to study the interaction of biological tissue and light, and how this can be exploited for sensing, imaging, and treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has a wide range of applications, including optical imaging, microscopy, ophthalmoscopy, spectroscopy, and therapy. Examples of biomedical optics techniques and technologies include <i><a href="Optical_coherence_tomography" title="Optical coherence tomography">optical coherence tomography</a></i> (OCT), <i><a href="Fluorescence_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescence microscopy">fluorescence microscopy</a></i>, <i><a href="Confocal_microscopy" title="Confocal microscopy">confocal microscopy</a></i>, and <i><a href="Photodynamic_therapy" title="Photodynamic therapy">photodynamic therapy</a></i> (PDT). OCT, for example, uses light to create high-resolution, three-dimensional images of internal structures, such as the <i><a href="Retina" title="Retina">retina</a></i> in the eye or the <i><a href="Coronary_arteries" title="Coronary arteries">coronary arteries</a></i> in the heart. Fluorescence microscopy involves labeling specific molecules with fluorescent dyes and visualizing them using light, providing insights into biological processes and disease mechanisms. More recently, <i><a href="Adaptive_optics" title="Adaptive optics">adaptive optics</a></i> is helping imaging by correcting aberrations in biological tissue, enabling higher resolution imaging and improved accuracy in procedures such as laser surgery and retinal imaging.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tissue_engineering">Tissue engineering</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">Tissue engineering</a></div>

<p>Tissue engineering, like genetic engineering (see below), is a major segment of <a href="Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a> – which overlaps significantly with BME.

</p><p>One of the goals of tissue engineering is to create artificial organs (via biological material) such as kidneys, livers, for patients that need organ transplants. Biomedical engineers are currently researching methods of creating such organs. Researchers have grown solid <a href="Human_jawbone" class="mw-redirect" title="Human jawbone">jawbones</a><sup id="cite_ref-BBC_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="Vertebrate_trachea" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrate trachea">tracheas</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from human stem cells towards this end. Several <a href="Artificial_urinary_bladder" title="Artificial urinary bladder">artificial urinary bladders</a> have been grown in laboratories and transplanted successfully into human patients.<sup id="cite_ref-cnngrow_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnngrow-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bioartificial organs, which use both synthetic and biological component, are also a focus area in research, such as with hepatic assist devices that use liver cells within an artificial bioreactor construct.<sup id="cite_ref-chicagoliver_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chicagoliver-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetic_engineering">Genetic engineering</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></div>

<p>Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM) and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct manipulation of an organism's genes. Unlike traditional breeding, an indirect method of genetic manipulation, genetic engineering utilizes modern tools such as molecular cloning and transformation to directly alter the structure and characteristics of target genes. Genetic engineering techniques have found success in numerous applications. Some examples include the improvement of crop technology (<i>not a medical application</i>, but see <a href="Biological_systems_engineering" title="Biological systems engineering">biological systems engineering</a>), the manufacture of synthetic human insulin through the use of modified bacteria, the manufacture of erythropoietin in hamster ovary cells, and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the oncomouse (cancer mouse) for research.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neural_engineering">Neural engineering</h3></div>

<p><a href="Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a> (also known as neuroengineering) is a discipline that uses engineering techniques to understand, repair, replace, or enhance neural systems. Neural engineers are uniquely qualified to solve design problems at the interface of living neural tissue and non-living constructs. Neural engineering can assist with numerous things, including the future development of prosthetics. For example, cognitive neural prosthetics (CNP) are being heavily researched and would allow for a chip implant to assist people who have prosthetics by providing signals to operate assistive devices.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pharmaceutical_engineering">Pharmaceutical engineering</h3></div>

<p><a href="Pharmaceutical_engineering" title="Pharmaceutical engineering">Pharmaceutical engineering</a> is an interdisciplinary science that includes drug engineering, novel drug delivery and targeting, pharmaceutical technology, unit operations of <a href="Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">chemical engineering</a>, and pharmaceutical analysis. It may be deemed as a part of <a href="Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">pharmacy</a> due to its focus on the use of technology on chemical agents in providing better medicinal treatment.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hospital_and_medical_devices">Hospital and medical devices</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Medical_device" title="Medical device">Medical device</a>, <a href="Medical_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical equipment">medical equipment</a>, and <a href="Medical_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical technology">Medical technology</a></div>

<p>This is an <i>extremely broad category</i>—essentially covering all health care products that do not achieve their intended results through predominantly chemical (e.g., pharmaceuticals) or biological (e.g., vaccines) means, and do not involve metabolism.

</p><p>A medical device is intended for use in:

</p>

<ul><li>the diagnosis of disease or other conditions</li>

<li>in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease.</li></ul>

<p>Some examples include <a href="Artificial_pacemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pacemaker">pacemakers</a>, <a href="Infusion_pump" title="Infusion pump">infusion pumps</a>, the <a href="Heart-lung_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart-lung machine">heart-lung machine</a>, <a href="Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">dialysis</a> machines, <a href="Artificial_organ" title="Artificial organ">artificial organs</a>, <a href="Implant_(medicine)" title="Implant (medicine)">implants</a>, <a href="Artificial_limb" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial limb">artificial limbs</a>, <a href="Corrective_lenses" class="mw-redirect" title="Corrective lenses">corrective lenses</a>, <a href="Cochlear_implant" title="Cochlear implant">cochlear implants</a>, <a href="Ocular_prosthetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocular prosthetics">ocular prosthetics</a>, <a href="Facial_prosthetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Facial prosthetics">facial prosthetics</a>, somato prosthetics, and <a href="Dental_implant" title="Dental implant">dental implants</a>.

</p>

<p><a href="Stereolithography" title="Stereolithography">Stereolithography</a> is a practical example of <i>medical modeling</i> being used to create physical objects. Beyond modeling organs and the human body, emerging engineering techniques are also currently used in the research and development of new devices for innovative therapies,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> treatments,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> patient monitoring,<sup id="cite_ref-CurtisDalby2006_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CurtisDalby2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of complex diseases.

</p><p>Medical devices are regulated and classified (in the US) as follows (see also <i>Regulation</i>):

</p>

<ul><li>Class I devices present minimal potential for harm to the user and are often simpler in design than Class II or Class III devices. Devices in this category include tongue depressors, bedpans, elastic bandages, examination gloves, and hand-held surgical instruments, and other similar types of common equipment.</li>

<li>Class II devices are subject to special controls in addition to the general controls of Class I devices. Special controls may include special labeling requirements, mandatory performance standards, and <a href="Postmarketing_surveillance" title="Postmarketing surveillance">postmarket surveillance</a>. Devices in this class are typically non-invasive and include X-ray machines, PACS, powered wheelchairs, infusion pumps, and surgical drapes.</li>

<li>Class III devices generally require premarket approval (PMA) or premarket notification (510k), a scientific review to ensure the device's safety and effectiveness, in addition to the general controls of Class I. Examples include replacement <a href="Heart_valves" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart valves">heart valves</a>, hip and knee joint implants, silicone gel-filled breast implants, implanted cerebellar stimulators, implantable pacemaker pulse generators and endosseous (intra-bone) implants.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_imaging">Medical imaging</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a></div>

<p>Medical/biomedical imaging is a major segment of <a href="Medical_device" title="Medical device">medical devices</a>. This area deals with enabling clinicians to directly or indirectly "view" things not visible in plain sight (such as due to their size, and/or location). This can involve utilizing ultrasound, magnetism, UV, radiology, and other means.

</p><p>Alternatively, navigation-guided equipment utilizes <a href="Electromagnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic">electromagnetic</a> tracking technology, such as <a href="Catheter" title="Catheter">catheter</a> placement into the brain or <a href="Feeding_tube" title="Feeding tube">feeding tube</a> placement systems. For example, ENvizion Medical's ENvue, an electromagnetic navigation system for enteral feeding tube placement. The system uses an external field generator and several EM passive sensors enabling scaling of the display to the patient's body contour, and a real-time view of the feeding tube tip location and direction, which helps the medical staff ensure the correct placement in the <a href="Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">GI tract</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>Imaging technologies are often essential to medical diagnosis, and are typically the most complex equipment found in a hospital including: <a href="Fluoroscopy" title="Fluoroscopy">fluoroscopy</a>, <a href="Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a> (MRI), <a href="Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a>, <a href="Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">positron emission tomography</a> (PET), <a href="PET-CT_scanning" class="mw-redirect" title="PET-CT scanning">PET-CT scans</a>, projection radiography such as <a href="X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> and <a href="CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scans</a>, <a href="Tomography" title="Tomography">tomography</a>, <a href="Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasound</a>, <a href="Optical_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical microscopy">optical microscopy</a>, and <a href="Electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopy">electron microscopy</a>.

</p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_implants">Medical implants</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Implant_(medicine)" title="Implant (medicine)">Implant (medicine)</a></div>

<p>An implant is a kind of medical device made to replace and act as a missing biological structure (as compared with a transplant, which indicates transplanted biomedical tissue). The surface of implants that contact the body might be made of a biomedical material such as titanium, silicone or apatite depending on what is the most functional. In some cases, implants contain electronics, e.g. artificial pacemakers and cochlear implants. Some implants are bioactive, such as subcutaneous drug delivery devices in the form of implantable pills or <a href="Drug-eluting_stent" title="Drug-eluting stent">drug-eluting stents</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bionics">Bionics</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Bionics#In_medicine" title="Bionics">Bionics § In medicine</a></div>

<p>Artificial body part replacements are one of the many applications of bionics. Concerned with the intricate and thorough study of the properties and function of human body systems, bionics may be applied to solve some engineering problems. Careful study of the different functions and processes of the eyes, ears, and other organs paved the way for improved cameras, television, radio transmitters and receivers, and many other tools.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biomedical_sensors">Biomedical sensors</h3></div>

<p>In recent years biomedical sensors based in microwave technology have gained more attention. Different sensors can be manufactured for specific uses in both diagnosing and monitoring disease conditions, for example microwave sensors can be used as a complementary technique to X-ray to monitor lower extremity trauma.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sensor monitor the dielectric properties and can thus notice change in tissue (bone, muscle, fat etc.) under the skin so when measuring at different times during the healing process the response from the sensor will change as the trauma heals.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_engineering">Clinical engineering</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Clinical_engineering" title="Clinical engineering">Clinical engineering</a></div>

<p><a href="Clinical_engineering" title="Clinical engineering">Clinical engineering</a> is the branch of biomedical engineering dealing with the actual implementation of <a href="Medical_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical equipment">medical equipment</a> and technologies in hospitals or other clinical settings. Major roles of clinical engineers include training and supervising <a href="Biomedical_Equipment_Technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical Equipment Technician">biomedical equipment technicians (BMETs)</a>, selecting technological products/services and logistically managing their implementation, working with governmental regulators on inspections/audits, and serving as technological consultants for other hospital staff (e.g. physicians, administrators, I.T., etc.). Clinical engineers also advise and collaborate with medical device producers regarding prospective design improvements based on clinical experiences, as well as monitor the progression of the state of the art so as to redirect procurement patterns accordingly.

</p><p>Their inherent focus on <i>practical</i> implementation of technology has tended to keep them oriented more towards <i>incremental</i>-level redesigns and reconfigurations, as opposed to revolutionary research & development or ideas that would be many years from clinical adoption; however, there is a growing effort to expand this time-horizon over which clinical engineers can influence the trajectory of biomedical innovation. In their various roles, they form a "bridge" between the primary designers and the end-users, by combining the perspectives of being both close to the point-of-use, while also trained in product and process engineering. Clinical engineering departments will sometimes hire not just biomedical engineers, but also industrial/systems engineers to help address operations research/optimization, human factors, cost analysis, etc. Also, see <a href="Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">safety engineering</a> for a discussion of the procedures used to design safe systems. The clinical engineering department is constructed with a manager, supervisor, engineer, and technician. One engineer per eighty beds in the hospital is the ratio. Clinical engineers are also authorized to audit pharmaceutical and associated stores to monitor FDA recalls of invasive items.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rehabilitation_engineering">Rehabilitation engineering</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Rehabilitation_engineering" title="Rehabilitation engineering">Rehabilitation engineering</a></div>

<p><b>Rehabilitation engineering</b> is the systematic application of engineering sciences to design, develop, adapt, test, evaluate, apply, and distribute technological solutions to problems confronted by individuals with disabilities. Functional areas addressed through rehabilitation engineering may include mobility, communications, hearing, vision, and cognition, and activities associated with employment, independent living, education, and integration into the community.<sup id="cite_ref-EnderleBronzino2012_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EnderleBronzino2012-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>While some rehabilitation engineers have master's degrees in rehabilitation engineering, usually a subspecialty of Biomedical engineering, most rehabilitation engineers have an undergraduate or graduate degrees in biomedical engineering, mechanical engineering, or electrical engineering. A Portuguese university provides an undergraduate degree and a master's degree in Rehabilitation Engineering and Accessibility.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cnngrow_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnngrow-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qualification to become a Rehab' Engineer in the UK is possible via a University BSc Honours Degree course such as Health Design & Technology Institute, Coventry University.<sup id="cite_ref-chicagoliver_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chicagoliver-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The rehabilitation process for people with disabilities often entails the design of assistive devices such as Walking aids intended to promote the inclusion of their users into the mainstream of society, commerce, and recreation.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regulatory_issues">Regulatory issues</h2></div>

<p>Regulatory issues have been constantly increased in the last decades to respond to the many incidents caused by devices to patients. For example, from 2008 to 2011, in US, there were 119 FDA recalls of medical devices classified as class I. According to U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), <a href="Class_I_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Class I recall">Class I recall</a> is associated to "a situation in which there is a reasonable probability that the use of, or exposure to, a product will cause serious adverse health consequences or death"<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Regardless of the country-specific legislation, the main regulatory objectives coincide worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in the medical device regulations, a product must be 1), safe 2), effective and 3), applicable to all the manufactured devices.

</p><p>A product is safe if patients, users, and third parties do not run unacceptable risks of physical hazards, such as injury or death, in its intended use. Protective measures must be introduced on devices that are hazardous to reduce residual risks at an acceptable level if compared with the benefit derived from the use of it.

</p><p>A product is effective if it performs as specified by the manufacturer in the intended use. Proof of effectiveness is achieved through clinical evaluation, compliance to performance standards or demonstrations of substantial equivalence with an already marketed device.

</p><p>The previous features have to be ensured for all the manufactured items of the medical device. This requires that a quality system shall be in place for all the relevant entities and processes that may impact safety and effectiveness over the whole medical device lifecycle.

</p><p>The medical device engineering area is among the most heavily regulated fields of engineering, and practicing biomedical engineers must routinely consult and cooperate with regulatory law attorneys and other experts. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the principal healthcare regulatory authority in the United States, having jurisdiction over medical <i>devices, drugs, biologics, and combination</i> products. The paramount objectives driving policy decisions by the FDA are safety and effectiveness of healthcare products that have to be assured through a quality system in place as specified under <a href="Title_21_of_the_Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations">21 CFR 829 regulation</a>. In addition, because biomedical engineers often develop devices and technologies for "consumer" use, such as physical therapy devices (which are also "medical" devices), these may also be governed in some respects by the <a href="Consumer_Product_Safety_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer Product Safety Commission">Consumer Product Safety Commission</a>. The greatest hurdles tend to be 510K "clearance" (typically for Class 2 devices) or pre-market "approval" (typically for drugs and class 3 devices).

</p><p>In the European context, safety effectiveness and quality is ensured through the "Conformity Assessment" which is defined as "the method by which a manufacturer demonstrates that its device complies with the requirements of the European <a href="Medical_Devices_Directive" title="Medical Devices Directive">Medical Device Directive</a>". The directive specifies different procedures according to the class of the device ranging from the simple Declaration of Conformity (Annex VII) for Class I devices to EC verification (Annex IV), Production quality assurance (Annex V), Product quality assurance (Annex VI) and Full quality assurance (Annex II). The Medical Device Directive specifies detailed procedures for Certification. In general terms, these procedures include tests and verifications that are to be contained in specific deliveries such as the risk management file, the technical file, and the quality system deliveries. The risk management file is the first deliverable that conditions the following design and manufacturing steps. The risk management stage shall drive the product so that product risks are reduced at an acceptable level with respect to the benefits expected for the patients for the use of the device. The <a href="Technical_file" title="Technical file">technical file</a> contains all the documentation data and records supporting medical device certification. FDA technical file has similar content although organized in a different structure. The Quality System deliverables usually include procedures that ensure quality throughout all product life cycles. The same standard (ISO EN 13485) is usually applied for quality management systems in the US and worldwide.

</p>

<p>In the European Union, there are certifying entities named "<a href="Notified_Body" class="mw-redirect" title="Notified Body">Notified Bodies</a>", accredited by the European Member States. The Notified Bodies must ensure the effectiveness of the certification process for all medical devices apart from the class I devices where a declaration of conformity produced by the manufacturer is sufficient for marketing. Once a product has passed all the steps required by the Medical Device Directive, the device is entitled to bear a <a href="CE_marking" title="CE marking">CE marking</a>, indicating that the device is believed to be safe and effective when used as intended, and, therefore, it can be marketed within the European Union area.

</p><p>The different regulatory arrangements sometimes result in particular technologies being developed first for either the U.S. or in Europe depending on the more favorable form of regulation. While nations often strive for substantive harmony to facilitate cross-national distribution, philosophical differences about the <i>optimal extent</i> of regulation can be a hindrance; more restrictive regulations seem appealing on an intuitive level, but critics decry the tradeoff cost in terms of slowing access to life-saving developments.

</p>

<p>Directive 2011/65/EU, better known as RoHS 2 is a recast of legislation originally introduced in 2002. The original EU legislation "Restrictions of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronics Devices" (RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC) was replaced and superseded by 2011/65/EU published in July 2011 and commonly known as RoHS 2.

<a href="Restriction_of_Hazardous_Substances_Directive" class="mw-redirect" title="Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive">RoHS</a> seeks to limit the dangerous substances in circulation in electronics products, in particular toxins and heavy metals, which are subsequently released into the environment when such devices are recycled.

</p><p>The scope of RoHS 2 is widened to include products previously excluded, such as medical devices and industrial equipment. In addition, manufacturers are now obliged to provide conformity risk assessments and test reports – or explain why they are lacking. For the first time, not only manufacturers but also importers and distributors share a responsibility to ensure Electrical and Electronic Equipment within the scope of RoHS complies with the hazardous substances limits and have a CE mark on their products.

</p>

<p>The new International Standard <a href="IEC_60601" title="IEC 60601">IEC 60601</a> for home healthcare electro-medical devices defining the requirements for devices used in the home healthcare environment. IEC 60601-1-11 (2010) must now be incorporated into the design and verification of a wide range of home use and point of care medical devices along with other applicable standards in the IEC 60601 3rd edition series.

</p><p>The mandatory date for implementation of the EN European version of the standard is June 1, 2013. The US FDA requires the use of the standard on June 30, 2013, while Health Canada recently extended the required date from June 2012 to April 2013. The North American agencies will only require these standards for new device submissions, while the EU will take the more severe approach of requiring all applicable devices being placed on the market to consider the home healthcare standard.

</p>

<p><a href="Standards_Australia" title="Standards Australia">AS/ANS 3551:2012</a> is the Australian and New Zealand standards for the management of medical devices. The standard specifies the procedures required to maintain a wide range of medical assets in a clinical setting (e.g. Hospital).<sup id="cite_ref-Standards_Australia_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Standards_Australia-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The standards are based on the IEC 606101 standards.

</p><p>The standard covers a wide range of medical equipment management elements including, procurement, acceptance testing, maintenance (electrical safety and preventive maintenance testing) and decommissioning.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Training_and_certification">Training and certification</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div>

<p>Biomedical engineers require considerable knowledge of both engineering and biology, and typically have a Bachelor's (B.Sc., B.S., B.Eng. or B.S.E.) or Master's (M.S., M.Sc., M.S.E., or M.Eng.) or a doctoral (Ph.D., or <a href="MD%E2%80%93PhD" title="MD–PhD">MD-PhD</a><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) degree in BME (Biomedical Engineering) or another branch of engineering with considerable potential for BME overlap. As interest in BME increases, many engineering colleges now have a Biomedical Engineering Department or Program, with offerings ranging from the undergraduate (B.Sc., B.S., B.Eng. or B.S.E.) to doctoral levels. Biomedical engineering has only recently been emerging as <i>its own discipline</i> rather than a cross-disciplinary hybrid specialization of other disciplines; and BME programs at all levels are becoming more widespread, including the <a href="Bachelor_of_Science_in_Biomedical_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering">Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering</a> which includes enough biological science content that many students use it as a "<a href="Pre-med" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-med">pre-med</a>" major in preparation for <a href="Medical_school" title="Medical school">medical school</a>. The number of biomedical engineers is expected to rise as both a cause and effect of improvements in medical technology.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the U.S., an increasing number of <a href="Undergraduate" class="mw-redirect" title="Undergraduate">undergraduate</a> programs are also becoming recognized by <a href="ABET" title="ABET">ABET</a> as accredited bioengineering/biomedical engineering programs. As of 2023, 155 programs are currently accredited by ABET.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In Canada and Australia, accredited graduate programs in biomedical engineering are common.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="McMaster_University" title="McMaster University">McMaster University</a> offers an M.A.Sc, an MD/PhD, and a PhD in Biomedical engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first Canadian <a href="Undergraduate" class="mw-redirect" title="Undergraduate">undergraduate</a> BME program was offered at <a href="University_of_Guelph" title="University of Guelph">University of Guelph</a> as a four-year B.Eng. program.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Polytechnique in Montreal is also offering a bachelors's degree in biomedical engineering<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as is Flinders University.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>As with many degrees, the reputation and ranking of a program may factor into the desirability of a degree holder for either employment or graduate admission. The reputation of many undergraduate degrees is also linked to the institution's graduate or research programs, which have some tangible factors for rating, such as research funding and volume, publications and citations. With BME specifically, the ranking of a university's hospital and medical school can also be a significant factor in the perceived prestige of its BME department/program.

</p><p><a href="Graduate_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Graduate school">Graduate education</a> is a particularly important aspect in BME. While many engineering fields (such as mechanical or electrical engineering) do not need graduate-level training to obtain an entry-level job in their field, the majority of BME positions do prefer or even require them.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since most BME-related professions involve scientific research, such as in <a href="Pharmaceutical" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical">pharmaceutical</a> and <a href="Medical_device" title="Medical device">medical device</a> development, graduate education is almost a requirement (as undergraduate degrees typically do not involve sufficient research training and experience). This can be either a Masters or Doctoral level degree; while in certain specialties a Ph.D. is notably more common than in others, it is hardly ever the majority (except in academia). In fact, the perceived need for some kind of graduate credential is so strong that some undergraduate BME programs will actively discourage students from majoring in BME without an expressed intention to also obtain a master's degree or apply to medical school afterwards.

</p><p>Graduate programs in BME, like in other scientific fields, are highly varied, and particular programs may emphasize certain aspects within the field. They may also feature extensive collaborative efforts with programs in other fields (such as the university's Medical School or other engineering divisions), owing again to the interdisciplinary nature of BME. M.S. and Ph.D. programs will typically require applicants to have an undergraduate degree in BME, or <i>another engineering</i> discipline (plus certain life science coursework), or <i>life science</i> (plus certain engineering coursework).

</p><p>Education in BME also varies greatly around the world. By virtue of its extensive biotechnology sector, its numerous major universities, and relatively few internal barriers, the U.S. has progressed a great deal in its development of BME education and training opportunities. Europe, which also has a large biotechnology sector and an impressive education system, has encountered trouble in creating uniform standards as the European community attempts to supplant some of the national jurisdictional barriers that still exist. Recently, initiatives such as BIOMEDEA have sprung up to develop BME-related education and professional standards.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other countries, such as Australia, are recognizing and moving to correct deficiencies in their BME education.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, as high technology endeavors are usually marks of developed nations, some areas of the world are prone to slower development in education, including in BME.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Licensure/certification">Licensure/certification</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Professional_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional engineer">Professional engineer</a></div>

<p>As with other learned professions, each state has certain (fairly similar) requirements for becoming licensed as a registered <a href="Professional_Engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional Engineer">Professional Engineer</a> (PE), but, in US, in industry such a license is not required to be an employee as an engineer in the majority of situations (due to an exception known as the industrial exemption, which effectively applies to the vast majority of American engineers). The US model has generally been only to require the practicing engineers offering engineering services that impact the public welfare, safety, safeguarding of life, health, or property to be licensed, while engineers working in private industry without a direct offering of engineering services to the public or other businesses, education, and government need not be licensed. This is notably not the case in many other countries, where a license is as legally necessary to practice engineering as it is for law or medicine.

</p><p>Biomedical engineering is regulated in some countries, such as Australia, but registration is typically only recommended and not required.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the UK, mechanical engineers working in the areas of Medical Engineering, <a href="Bioengineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioengineering">Bioengineering</a> or Biomedical engineering can gain <a href="Chartered_Engineer_(UK)" title="Chartered Engineer (UK)">Chartered Engineer</a> status through the <a href="Institution_of_Mechanical_Engineers" title="Institution of Mechanical Engineers">Institution of Mechanical Engineers</a>. The Institution also runs the Engineering in Medicine and Health Division.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (IPEM) has a panel for the accreditation of MSc courses in Biomedical Engineering and Chartered Engineering status can also be sought through IPEM.

</p><p>The <a href="Fundamentals_of_Engineering_exam" title="Fundamentals of Engineering exam">Fundamentals of Engineering exam</a> – the first (and more general) of two licensure examinations for most U.S. jurisdictions—does now cover biology (although technically not BME). For the second exam, called the Principles and Practices, Part 2, or the Professional Engineering exam, candidates may select a particular engineering discipline's content to be tested on; there is currently not an option for BME with this, meaning that any biomedical engineers seeking a license must prepare to take this examination in another category (which does not affect the actual license, since most jurisdictions do not recognize discipline specialties anyway). However, the Biomedical Engineering Society (BMES) is, as of 2009, exploring the possibility of seeking to implement a BME-specific version of this exam to facilitate biomedical engineers pursuing licensure.

</p><p>Beyond governmental registration, certain private-sector professional/industrial organizations also offer certifications with varying degrees of prominence. One such example is the Certified Clinical Engineer (CCE) certification for Clinical engineers.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career_prospects">Career prospects</h2></div>

<p>In 2012 there were about 19,400 biomedical engineers employed in the US, and the field was predicted to grow by 5% (faster than average) from 2012 to 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biomedical engineering has the highest percentage of female engineers compared to other common engineering professions. Now as of 2023, there are 19,700 jobs for this degree, the average pay for a person in this field is around $100,730.00 and making around $48.43 an hour. There is also expected to be a 7% increase in jobs from here 2023 to 2033 (even faster than the last average).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_figures">Notable figures</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Julia_Tutelman_Apter" title="Julia Tutelman Apter">Julia Tutelman Apter</a> (deceased) – One of the first specialists in neurophysiological research<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a founding member of the Biomedical Engineering Society<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Earl_Bakken" title="Earl Bakken">Earl Bakken</a> (deceased) – Invented the first transistorised pacemaker, co-founder of <a href="Medtronic" title="Medtronic">Medtronic</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Forrest_Bird" title="Forrest Bird">Forrest Bird</a> (deceased) – aviator and pioneer in the invention of <a href="Mechanical_ventilator" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical ventilator">mechanical ventilators</a></li>

<li><a href="Yuan-Cheng_Fung" title="Yuan-Cheng Fung">Y.C. Fung</a> (deceased) – <a href="Professor_emeritus" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor emeritus">professor emeritus</a> at the <a href="University_of_California%2C_San_Diego" title="University of California, San Diego">University of California, San Diego</a>, considered by many to be the founder of modern <a href="Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">biomechanics</a><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Leslie_A._Geddes" title="Leslie A. Geddes">Leslie Geddes</a> (deceased) – professor emeritus at <a href="Purdue_University" title="Purdue University">Purdue University</a>, electrical engineer, inventor, and educator of over 2000 biomedical engineers, received a <a href="National_Medal_of_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="National Medal of Technology">National Medal of Technology</a> in 2006 from President George Bush<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for his more than 50 years of contributions that have spawned innovations ranging from burn treatments to miniature defibrillators, ligament repair to tiny blood pressure monitors for premature infants, as well as a new method for performing <a href="Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation" title="Cardiopulmonary resuscitation">cardiopulmonary resuscitation</a> (CPR).</li>

<li><a href="Willem_Johan_Kolff" title="Willem Johan Kolff">Willem Johan Kolff</a> (deceased) – pioneer of <a href="Hemodialysis" title="Hemodialysis">hemodialysis</a> as well as in the field of artificial organs</li>

<li><a href="Robert_S._Langer" title="Robert S. Langer">Robert Langer</a> – <a href="Institute_Professor" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute Professor">Institute Professor</a> at <a href="MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>, runs the largest BME laboratory in the world, pioneer in <a href="Drug_delivery" title="Drug delivery">drug delivery</a> and <a href="Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">tissue engineering</a><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="John_Macleod_(physiologist)" title="John Macleod (physiologist)">John Macleod</a> (deceased) – one of the co-discoverers of insulin at <a href="Case_Western_Reserve_University" title="Case Western Reserve University">Case Western Reserve University</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Alfred_E._Mann" title="Alfred E. Mann">Alfred E. Mann</a> – Physicist, entrepreneur and philanthropist. A pioneer in the field of Biomedical Engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>J. Thomas Mortimer – Emeritus professor of biomedical engineering at Case Western Reserve University. Pioneer in Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES)<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Robert_M._Nerem" title="Robert M. Nerem">Robert M. Nerem</a> – professor emeritus at <a href="Georgia_Institute_of_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgia Institute of Technology">Georgia Institute of Technology</a>. Pioneer in regenerative tissue, biomechanics, and author of over 300 published works. His works have been cited more than 20,000 times cumulatively.</li>

<li>P. Hunter Peckham – Donnell Professor of Biomedical Engineering and Orthopaedics at Case Western Reserve University. Pioneer in Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES)<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Nicholas_A._Peppas" title="Nicholas A. Peppas">Nicholas A. Peppas</a> – Chaired Professor in <a href="Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a>, <a href="University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a>, pioneer in <a href="Drug_delivery" title="Drug delivery">drug delivery</a>, <a href="Biomaterials" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomaterials">biomaterials</a>, <a href="Hydrogels" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogels">hydrogels</a> and <a href="Nanobiotechnology" title="Nanobiotechnology">nanobiotechnology</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Robert_Plonsey" title="Robert Plonsey">Robert Plonsey</a> – professor emeritus at <a href="Duke_University" title="Duke University">Duke University</a>, pioneer of electrophysiology<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Otto_Schmitt" title="Otto Schmitt">Otto Schmitt</a> (deceased) – biophysicist with significant contributions to BME, working with <a href="Biomimetics" title="Biomimetics">biomimetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Ascher_H._Shapiro" title="Ascher H. Shapiro">Ascher Shapiro</a> (deceased) – Institute Professor at MIT, contributed to the development of the BME field, medical devices (e.g. intra-aortic balloons)</li>

<li><a href="Gordana_Vunjak-Novakovic" title="Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic">Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic</a> – University Professor at <a href="Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, pioneer in <a href="Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">tissue engineering</a> and <a href="Bioreactor" title="Bioreactor">bioreactor</a> design</li>

<li><a href="John_G._Webster" title="John G. Webster">John G. Webster</a> – professor emeritus at the <a href="University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a>, a pioneer in the field of <a href="Instrumentation_amplifier" title="Instrumentation amplifier">instrumentation amplifiers</a> for the recording of <a href="Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">electrophysiological signals</a></li>

<li><a href="Fred_Weibell" title="Fred Weibell">Fred Weibell</a>, coauthor of <i>Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements</i></li>

<li><a href="Uncas_A._Whitaker" title="Uncas A. Whitaker">U.A. Whitaker</a> (deceased) – provider of the <a href="Whitaker_Foundation" title="Whitaker Foundation">Whitaker Foundation</a>, which supported research and education in BME by providing over $700 million to various universities, helping to create 30 BME programs and helping finance the construction of 13 buildings<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

<ul><li><a href="Biomedicine" title="Biomedicine">Biomedicine</a> – Branch of medical science</li>

<li><a href="Cardiophysics" title="Cardiophysics">Cardiophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_anatomy" title="Computational anatomy">Computational anatomy</a> – Interdisciplinary field of biology</li>

<li><a href="Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">Medical physics</a> – Application of physics in medicine or healthcare</li>

<li><a href="Physiome" title="Physiome">Physiome</a> – Wholistic physiological dynamics of an organism</li>

<li><a href="Biomedical_Engineering_and_Instrumentation_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical Engineering and Instrumentation Program">Biomedical Engineering and Instrumentation Program</a> (BEIP)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Denis_EnderleJoseph_D._Bronzino2012" class="citation book cs1">John Denis Enderle; Joseph D. Bronzino (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=twc-GLOtlOQC&pg=PP2"><i>Introduction to Biomedical Engineering</i></a>. Academic Press. pp. 16–. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-12-374979-6</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240726171612/https://books.google.com/books?id=twc-GLOtlOQC&pg=PP2#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-07-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-02-22</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFakhrullinLvov2014" class="citation book cs1">Fakhrullin, Rawil; Lvov, Yuri, eds. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210125150322/https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/ebook/978-1-78262-847-7"><i>Cell Surface Engineering</i></a>. Smart Materials Series. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2F9781782628477">10.1039/9781782628477</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-78262-847-7</bdi>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/ebook/978-1-78262-847-7">the original</a> on 2021-01-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-03-28</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNebeker2001" class="citation journal cs1">Nebeker, Frederik (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/23786025">"The Emergence of Biomedical Engineering in the United States"</a>. <i>International Committee for the History of Technology</i>. <b>7</b>: <span class="nowrap">75–</span>94. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23786025">23786025</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAlexander_R._McNeill2005" class="citation journal cs1">Alexander R. McNeill (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2005.08.016">"Mechanics of animal movement"</a>. <i><a href="Current_Biology" title="Current Biology">Current Biology</a></i>. <b>15</b> (16): <span class="nowrap">R616 –</span> <span class="nowrap">R619</span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2005.08.016">10.1016/j.cub.2005.08.016</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16111929">16111929</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14032136">14032136</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHatze1974" class="citation journal cs1">Hatze, Herbert (1974). "The meaning of the term biomechanics". <i>Journal of Biomechanics</i>. <b>7</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">189–</span>190. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0021-9290%2874%2990060-8">10.1016/0021-9290(74)90060-8</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4837555">4837555</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/medphys/contacts/people/bcox/MPHYX910_Biomedical_Optics_notes_Nov2015.pdf">"Introduction to Biomedical Optics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240726171612/https://www.ucl.ac.uk/medphys/contacts/people/bcox/MPHYX910_Biomedical_Optics_notes_Nov2015.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2024-07-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-01-25</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-BBC-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BBC_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BBC_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8290138.stm">"Jaw bone created from stem cells"</a>. BBC News. October 10, 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091011100922/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8290138.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 October</span> 2009</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Thorsten_Walles" title="Thorsten Walles">Walles T</a>. Tracheobronchial bio-engineering: biotechnology fulfilling unmet medical needs. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2011; 63(4–5): 367–74.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-cnngrow-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnngrow_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnngrow_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2006/HEALTH/conditions/04/03/engineered.organs/index.html">"Doctors grow organs from patients' own cells"</a>. CNN. April 3, 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170525073410/http://www.cnn.com/2006/HEALTH/conditions/04/03/engineered.organs/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 25, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 2,</span> 2006</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-chicagoliver-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-chicagoliver_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chicagoliver_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uchospitals.edu/news/1999/19990225-elad.html">Trial begins for first artificial liver device using human cells</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110105063712/http://www.uchospitals.edu/news/1999/19990225-elad.html">Archived</a> 2011-01-05 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, February 25, 1999</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAndersenHwangMulliken2010" class="citation journal cs1">Andersen, Richard A.; Hwang, Eun Jung; Mulliken, Grant H. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2849803">"Cognitive Neural Prosthetics"</a>. <i>Annual Review of Psychology</i>. <b>61</b>: 169–C3. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.093008.100503">10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100503</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0066-4308">0066-4308</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2849803">2849803</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19575625">19575625</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cancerjournal.net/article.asp?issn=0973-1482;year=2006;volume=2;issue=4;spage=186;epage=195;aulast=Hede">""Nano": The new nemesis of cancer Hede S, Huilgol N – J Can Res Ther"</a>. <i>cancerjournal.net</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151222102418/http://www.cancerjournal.net/article.asp?issn=0973-1482;year=2006;volume=2;issue=4;spage=186;epage=195;aulast=Hede">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-12-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-02-02</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCouvreur,_PatrickVauthier,_Christine2006" class="citation journal cs1">Couvreur, Patrick; Vauthier, Christine (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11095-006-0284-8">"Nanotechnology: Intelligent Design to Treat Complex Disease"</a>. <i>Pharmaceutical Research</i>. <b>23</b> (7): 1417–1450(34). <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11095-006-0284-8">10.1007/s11095-006-0284-8</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16779701">16779701</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1520698">1520698</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-CurtisDalby2006-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CurtisDalby2006_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCurtisDalbyGadegaard2006" class="citation journal cs1">Curtis, Adam SG; Dalby, Matthew; Gadegaard, Nikolaj (2006). "Cell signaling arising from nanotopography: implications for nanomedical devices". <i>Nanomedicine</i>. <b>1</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">67–</span>72. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2217%2F17435889.1.1.67">10.2217/17435889.1.1.67</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1743-5889">1743-5889</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17716210">17716210</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJacobsonOlayanWilliamsSchultz2019" class="citation journal cs1">Jacobson, Lewis E.; Olayan, May; Williams, Jamie M.; Schultz, Jacqueline F.; Wise, Hannah M.; Singh, Amandeep; Saxe, Jonathan M.; Benjamin, Richard; Emery, Marie; Vilem, Hilary; Kirby, Donald F. (1 November 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tsaco.bmj.com/content/4/1/e000330">"Feasibility and safety of a novel electromagnetic device for small-bore feeding tube placement"</a>. <i>Trauma Surgery & Acute Care Open</i>. <b>4</b> (1): e000330. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Ftsaco-2019-000330">10.1136/tsaco-2019-000330</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2397-5776">2397-5776</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6861064">6861064</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31799414">31799414</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230303053759/https://tsaco.bmj.com/content/4/1/e000330">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFShahVelanderMathurPerez2018" class="citation journal cs1">Shah, Syaiful; Velander, Jacob; Mathur, Parul; Perez, Mauricio; Asan, Noor; Kurup, Dhanesh; Blokhuis, Taco; Augustine, Robin (2018-02-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5855979">"Split-Ring Resonator Sensor Penetration Depth Assessment Using in Vivo Microwave Reflectivity and Ultrasound Measurements for Lower Extremity Trauma Rehabilitation"</a>. <i>Sensors</i>. <b>18</b> (2): 636. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Senso..18..636S">2018Senso..18..636S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fs18020636">10.3390/s18020636</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1424-8220">1424-8220</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5855979">5855979</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29466312">29466312</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Medical & Radiation Emitting Device Recalls <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060101035022/http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfRES/res.cfm">[1]</a> </span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:6-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:6_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.who.int/medical_devices/publications/en/MD_Regulations.pdf">"Medical Device Regulations: Global overview and guiding principles"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. World Health Organization (WHO). 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131025014131/http://www.who.int/medical_devices/publications/en/MD_Regulations.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2013-10-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-09-13</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Standards_Australia-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Standards_Australia_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://infostore.saiglobal.com/store/details.aspx?ProductID=1595659"><i>AS/NZS 3551:2012 Management programs for medical equipment</i></a>. Standards Australia. 2016-10-18. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-74342-277-9</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140311084154/http://infostore.saiglobal.com/store/Details.aspx?productID=1595659">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-03-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-10-18</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bme.jhu.edu/academics/graduate/phd-program/md-phd-program/">"MD-PhD Program"</a>. <i>Johns Hopkins Biomedical Engineering</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221129065223/https://www.bme.jhu.edu/academics/graduate/phd-program/md-phd-program/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-11-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-11-29</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://engineering.dartmouth.edu/graduate/phd-md">"PhD+MD"</a>. <i>Dartmouth Engineering</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221129065222/https://engineering.dartmouth.edu/graduate/phd-md">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-11-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-11-29</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://engineering.purdue.edu/BME/Academics/Graduate/Degree_Certificate_Options/MDPhD/index_html">"Physician-Engineer Training Program"</a>. <i>Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering – Purdue University</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221129065232/https://engineering.purdue.edu/BME/Academics/Graduate/Degree_Certificate_Options/MDPhD/index_html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-11-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-11-29</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos027.htm">U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics</a> – Profile for Engineers <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060219092732/http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos027.htm">Archived</a> February 19, 2006, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230220182349/https://amspub.abet.org/aps/category-search?disciplines=9&disciplines=10&countries=US">"Disciplines. Countries. USA"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://amspub.abet.org/aps/category-search?disciplines=9&disciplines=10&countries=US">the original</a> on 2023-02-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-20</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGoyal2018" class="citation book cs1">Goyal, Megh R. (2018-01-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zyhFDwAAQBAJ"><i>Scientific and Technical Terms in Bioengineering and Biological Engineering</i></a>. CRC Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-351-36035-7</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240726171640/https://books.google.com/books?id=zyhFDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-07-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-05</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eng.mcmaster.ca/msbe/programs/degree-options">"Degree Options"</a>. <i>McMaster School of Biomedical Engineering</i>. eng.mcmaster.ca. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191024195956/https://www.eng.mcmaster.ca/msbe/programs/degree-options">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uoguelph.ca/registrar/calendars/undergraduate/2010-2011/c10/c10beng-bme.shtml">"2010–2011 Undergraduate Calendar – Biomedical Engineering"</a>. University of Guelph. 2010-09-07. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240726171612/https://www.uoguelph.ca/registrar/calendars/undergraduate/2010-2011/c10/c10beng-bme.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-07-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-04-07</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.polymtl.ca/programmes/programmes/baccalaureat-en-genie-biomedical">"Baccalauréat en Génie biomédical"</a>. <i>Polytechnique Montréal</i>. 15 January 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201012165619/https://www.polymtl.ca/programmes/programmes/baccalaureat-en-genie-biomedical">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/study/courses/bachelor-engineering-biomedical-honours">"Bachelor of Engineering (Biomedical) (Honours)"</a>. Flinders University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240726171618/https://www.flinders.edu.au/study/courses/bachelor-engineering-biomedical-honours">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111219172748/http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos027.htm">"Job Outlook for Engineers"</a>. <i>U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos027.htm#outlook">the original</a> on December 19, 2011.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506113817/http://www.bmt.uni-stuttgart.de/biomedea/biomedea.htm">"BIOMEDEA"</a>. September 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bmt.uni-stuttgart.de/biomedea/biomedea.htm">the original</a> on May 6, 2008.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLithgow,_B._J.2001" class="citation web cs1">Lithgow, B. J. (October 25, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080501063532/http://stinet.dtic.mil/oai/oai?&verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA410442">"Biomedical Engineering Curriculum: A Comparison Between the USA, Europe and Australia"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stinet.dtic.mil/oai/oai?&verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA410442">the original</a> on May 1, 2008.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080105230101/http://www.nerb.org.au/aop/nper_areas_biomedical.cfm">"National Engineering Register"</a>. Engineers Australia. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.engineersaustralia.org.au/credentials/registration/national-engineering-register">the original</a> on 5 January 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070502205758/http://www.imeche.org/industries/medical/">"Medical Engineering: Homepage"</a>. <i>Institution of Mechanical Engineers</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imeche.org/industries/medical/">the original</a> on May 2, 2007.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/biomedical-engineers.htm">Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2014–15 Edition: Biomedical Engineers</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210417083907/http://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/biomedical-engineers.htm">Archived</a> 2021-04-17 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1979/04/18/archives/dr-julia-apter-ophthalmologist-and-researcher-61-in-chicago.html">"Dr. Julia Apter, Ophthalmologist And Researcher, 61, in Chicago"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 1979-04-18. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230301024913/https://www.nytimes.com/1979/04/18/archives/dr-julia-apter-ophthalmologist-and-researcher-61-in-chicago.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-03-01</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFagette_Jr.Horner2004" class="citation book cs1">Fagette Jr., Paul H.; Horner, Patricia I., eds. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assets.noviams.com/novi-file-uploads/bmes/PDFs_and_Documents/History/BMES_35_year_HISTORY_-_FINAL_1_.pdf"><i>Celebrating 35 years of Biomedical Engineering: An Historical Perspective</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Landover, MD: <a href="Biomedical_Engineering_Society" title="Biomedical Engineering Society">Biomedical Engineering Society</a>. p. 4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230301031037/https://assets.noviams.com/novi-file-uploads/bmes/PDFs_and_Documents/History/BMES_35_year_HISTORY_-_FINAL_1_.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2023-03-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-03-01</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKassab,_Ghassan_S.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Kassab, Ghassan S. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071202171321/http://www.techscience.com/mcb_pdf/v1n1/pdf/184288277842.pdf">"YC "Bert" Fung: The Father of Modern Biomechanics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Mechanics & Chemistry of Biosystems</i>. <b>1</b> (1). Tech Science Press: <span class="nowrap">5–</span>22. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3970%2Fmcb.2004.001.005">10.3970/mcb.2004.001.005</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16783943">16783943</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.techscience.com/mcb_pdf/v1n1/pdf/184288277842.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on December 2, 2007.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2pZJVE51Vao">"Leslie Geddes – 2006 National Medal of Technology"</a>. 2007-07-31. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/2pZJVE51Vao">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-11-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-09-24</span></span> – via YouTube.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFO'Neill,_Kathryn_M.2006" class="citation web cs1">O'Neill, Kathryn M. (July 20, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2006/langer.html">"Colleagues honor Langer for 30 years of innovation"</a>. <i>MIT News Office</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140218205553/http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2006/langer.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 18, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 16,</span> 2007</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGallegos2010" class="citation web cs1">Gallegos, Emma (2010-10-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120724174624/http://www.aemf.org/The">"Alfred E. Mann Foundation for Scientific Research (AMF)"</a>. Aemf.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aemf.org/The">the original</a> on July 24, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-09-24</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://engineering.case.edu/profiles/jtm3">"J. Thomas Mortimer"</a>. <i>CSE Faculty/Staff Profiles</i>. engineering.case.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230502221647/https://engineering.case.edu/profiles/jtm3">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-05-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-06-14</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://case.edu/universityprofessor/past-recipients/p-hunter-peckham-phd">"P. Hunter Peckham, PhD | Distinguished University Professor | Case Western Reserve University"</a>. <i>Distinguished University Professor | Case Western Reserve University</i>. 25 April 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240726171615/https://case.edu/universityprofessor/past-recipients/p-hunter-peckham-phd">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-07-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-06-14</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fds.duke.edu/db/pratt/BME/faculty/robert.plonsey">"Robert Plonsey, Pfizer-Pratt Professor Emeritus"</a>. <i>Faculty – Duke BME</i>. Fds.duke.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090605193629/http://fds.duke.edu/db/pratt/BME/faculty/robert.plonsey">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-06-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-10-11</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whitaker.org/">"The Whitaker Foundation"</a>. Whitaker.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110925095240/http://www.whitaker.org/">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-09-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-09-24</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<p><small> 45. ^<a href="Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics" title="Bureau of Labor Statistics">Bureau of Labor Statistics</a>, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/biomedical-engineers.htm">"Bioengineers and Biomedical Engineers"</a>, retrieved October 27, 2024.</small>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBronzino,_Joseph_D.2006" class="citation book cs1">Bronzino, Joseph D. (April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150224012731/http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9780849321245"><i>The Biomedical Engineering Handbook</i></a> (Third ed.). [CRC Press]. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8493-2124-5</bdi>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://crcpress.com/product/isbn/9780849321245">the original</a> on 2015-02-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-06-22</span></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVillafane,_Carlos2009" class="citation book cs1">Villafane, Carlos (June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biomedtechnicians.com"><i>Biomed: From the Student's Perspective</i></a> (First ed.). [Techniciansfriend.com]. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-61539-663-4</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .infobox .side-box{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="side-box side-box-right sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist">At <a href="Wikiversity" title="Wikiversity">Wikiversity</a>, you can learn more and teach others about <b>Biomedical engineering</b> at the <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Topic:Biomedical_engineering" class="extiw external" title="v:Topic:Biomedical engineering">Department of Biomedical engineering</a></div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biomedical_engineering" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Biomedical engineering">Biomedical engineering</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biotechnology389" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div id="Biotechnology389" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_biotechnology" title="Timeline of biotechnology">Timeline of biotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology" title="Competitions and prizes in biotechnology">Competitions and prizes in biotechnology</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Colors_of_biotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Colors of biotechnology">Colors of biotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_biotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial biotechnology">Industrial biotechnology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li>

<li><a href="Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li>

<li><a href="Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a></li>

<li><a href="Protein" title="Protein">Protein</a></li>

<li><a href="Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biotechnology_industrial_park" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology industrial park">Biotechnology industrial park</a></li>

<li><a href="Biotechnology_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology products">Biotechnology products</a></li>

<li><a href="Biotechnology_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology law">Biotechnology law</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li>

<li><a href="Pharmaceutical_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical company">Pharmaceutical company</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic techniques<br> and tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biology field</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bioreactor" title="Bioreactor">Bioreactor</a></li>

<li><a href="Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li>

<li><a href="Flow_cytometry" title="Flow cytometry">Flow cytometry</a></li>

<li><a href="Hybridoma_technology" title="Hybridoma technology">Hybridoma technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical field</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li>

<li><a href="Crystallization" title="Crystallization">Crystallization</a></li>

<li><a href="Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li>

<li><a href="Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">Kidney dialysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrophoresis" title="Electrophoresis">Electrophoresis</a></li>

<li><a href="Extraction_(chemistry)" title="Extraction (chemistry)">Extraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Fed-batch_culture" title="Fed-batch culture">Fed Batch</a></li>

<li><a href="Filtration" title="Filtration">Filtration</a></li>

<li><a href="Sedimentation" title="Sedimentation">Sedimentation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animal_cell_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal cell culture">Animal cell culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Biofabrication" title="Biofabrication">Biofabrication</a></li>

<li><a href="Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Bionic_architecture" title="Bionic architecture">Bionic architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Cell_immunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell immunity">Cell immunity</a></li>

<li><a href="Cloning" title="Cloning">Cloning</a>

<ul><li><a href="Reproductive_cloning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive cloning">Reproductive cloning</a></li>

<li><a href="Therapeutic_cloning" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutic cloning">Therapeutic cloning</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_biotechnology" title="Environmental biotechnology">Environmental biotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a>

<ul><li><a href="Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">Genetically modified organism</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">Gene therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Microbial_biodegradation" title="Microbial biodegradation">Microbial biodegradation</a></li>

<li><a href="Omics" title="Omics">Omics</a></li>

<li><a href="Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Stem_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem cells">Stem cells</a></li>

<li><a href="Telomere" title="Telomere">Telomere</a></li>

<li><a href="Tissue_culture" title="Tissue culture">Tissue culture</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary <br>fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biobased_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Biobased economy">Bioeconomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Bioelectronics" title="Bioelectronics">Bioelectronics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Bioengineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Biopharmaceutical" title="Biopharmaceutical">Biopharmacology</a></li>

<li><a href="Biomedicine" title="Biomedicine">Biomedicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Biomimetics" title="Biomimetics">Biomimetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemicals</a></li>

<li><a href="Biorobotics" title="Biorobotics">Biorobotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanobiotechnology" title="Nanobiotechnology">Nanobiotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Index_of_biotechnology_articles" title="Index of biotechnology articles">Index of biotechnology articles</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_biotechnology_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="List of biotechnology articles">List of biotechnology articles</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_largest_biomedical_companies_by_market_capitalization" title="List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization">List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> <b>Category</b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biotechnology" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Biotechnology">Commons</a></b></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Engineering683" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Engineering683" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_engineering" title="History of engineering">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_engineering" title="Outline of engineering">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_engineering_branches" title="List of engineering branches">List of engineering branches</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialties<br>and<br><a href="Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural</a></li>

<li><a href="Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal</a></li>

<li><a href="Construction_engineering" title="Construction engineering">Construction</a></li>

<li><a href="Earthquake_engineering" title="Earthquake engineering">Earthquake</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sanitary_engineering" title="Sanitary engineering">Sanitary</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Geological_engineering" title="Geological engineering">Geological</a></li>

<li><a href="Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical</a></li>

<li><a href="Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">Hydraulic</a></li>

<li><a href="Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Municipal_or_urban_engineering" title="Municipal or urban engineering">Municipal/urban</a></li>

<li><a href="Offshore_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore engineering">Offshore</a></li>

<li><a href="River_engineering" title="River engineering">River</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">Structural</a></li>

<li><a href="Transportation_engineering" title="Transportation engineering">Transportation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Traffic_engineering_(transportation)" title="Traffic engineering (transportation)">Traffic</a></li>

<li><a href="Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">Acoustic</a></li>

<li><a href="Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace</a></li>

<li><a href="Automotive_engineering" title="Automotive engineering">Automotive</a></li>

<li><a href="Biomechanical_engineering" title="Biomechanical engineering">Biomechanical</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_engineering" title="Energy engineering">Energy</a></li>

<li><a href="Manufacturing_engineering" title="Manufacturing engineering">Manufacturing</a></li>

<li><a href="Marine_engineering" title="Marine engineering">Marine</a></li>

<li><a href="Naval_architecture" title="Naval architecture">Naval architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Railway_engineering" title="Railway engineering">Railway</a></li>

<li><a href="Sports_engineering" title="Sports engineering">Sports</a></li>

<li><a href="Thermal_engineering" title="Thermal engineering">Thermal</a></li>

<li><a href="Tribology" title="Tribology">Tribology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">Broadcast</a>

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_computer_engineering" title="Outline of computer engineering">outline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control</a></li>

<li><a href="Electromechanics" title="Electromechanics">Electromechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronics</a></li>

<li><a href="Microwave_engineering" title="Microwave engineering">Microwaves</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_engineering" title="Optical engineering">Optical</a></li>

<li><a href="Power_engineering" title="Power engineering">Power</a></li>

<li><a href="Radio-frequency_engineering" title="Radio-frequency engineering">Radio-frequency</a></li>

<li><a href="Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biochemical_engineering" title="Biochemical engineering">Biochemical/bioprocess</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bioresource_engineering" title="Bioresource engineering">Bioresource</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic</a></li>

<li><a href="Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">Tissue</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Chemical reaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrochemical_engineering" title="Electrochemical engineering">Electrochemical</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li>

<li><a href="Paper_engineering" title="Paper engineering">Paper</a></li>

<li><a href="Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum</a></li>

<li><a href="Process_engineering" title="Process engineering">Process</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_reaction_engineering" title="Chemical reaction engineering">Reaction</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biomaterial" title="Biomaterial">Biomaterial</a></li>

<li><a href="Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramics</a></li>

<li><a href="Corrosion_engineering" title="Corrosion engineering">Corrosion</a></li>

<li><a href="Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_engineering" title="Molecular engineering">Molecular</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Polymer_engineering" title="Polymer engineering">Polymers</a></li>

<li><a href="Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductors</a></li>

<li><a href="Surface_engineering" title="Surface engineering">Surfaces</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Systems_engineering_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Systems engineering (disambiguation)">Computer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer</a></li>

<li><a href="Cybersecurity_engineering" title="Cybersecurity engineering">Cybersecurity</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_network_engineering" title="Computer network engineering">Networks</a></li>

<li><a href="Robotics_engineering" title="Robotics engineering">Robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Engineering_education" title="Engineering education">Engineering education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">Bachelor of Engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a></li>

<li><a href="Master's_degree" title="Master's degree">Master's degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a></li>

<li><a href="Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">Graduate certificate</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineer's_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Regulation_and_licensure_in_engineering" title="Regulation and licensure in engineering">Licensed engineer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Engineer" title="Engineer">Engineer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Glossary" title="Glossary">Glossaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Engineering

<li><a href="Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" title="Glossary of aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" title="Glossary of mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Audio</a></li>

<li><a href="Automation_engineering" title="Automation engineering">Automation</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_engineering" title="Clinical engineering">Clinical</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pharmaceutical_engineering" title="Pharmaceutical engineering">Pharmaceutical</a></li>

<li><a href="Rehabilitation_engineering" title="Rehabilitation engineering">Rehabilitation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services</a>

<li><a href="Design_engineer" title="Design engineer">Design</a></li>

<li><a href="Explosives_engineering" title="Explosives engineering">Explosives</a></li>

<li><a href="Facilities_engineering" title="Facilities engineering">Facilities</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">Forensic</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate engineering">Climate</a></li>

<li><a href="Geomatics_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomatics engineering">Geomatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_drawing" title="Engineering drawing">Graphics</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_engineering" title="Information engineering">Information</a></li>

<li><a href="Instrumentation_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumentation engineering">Instrumentation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Instrumentation_and_control_engineering" title="Instrumentation and control engineering">Instrumentation and control</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Logistics_engineering" title="Logistics engineering">Logistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Management</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_mathematics" title="Engineering mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">Mechatronics</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_engineering" title="Ontology engineering">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Packaging_engineering" title="Packaging engineering">Packaging</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy_engineering" title="Privacy engineering">Privacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">Security</a></li>

<li><a href="Survey_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey engineering">Survey</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_engineering" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainability</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Textile_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Textile engineering">Textile</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Engineering" class="extiw external" title="commons:Engineering">Commons</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"></span></span> Wikiproject</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <a href="Portal%3AEngineering" title="Portal:Engineering">Portal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Medicine685" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Medicine685" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialties</a><br>and<br><a href="Subspecialty" title="Subspecialty">subspecialties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Endocrine_surgery" title="Endocrine surgery">Endocrine surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Eye_surgery" title="Eye surgery">Eye surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a>

<ul><li><a href="Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Digestive_system_surgery" title="Digestive system surgery">Digestive system surgery</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a>

<li><a href="Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">Internal<br>medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a> / <a href="Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li>

<li><a href="Angiology" title="Angiology">Angiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiology" title="Cardiology">Cardiology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Interventional_cardiology" title="Interventional cardiology">Interventional</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></li>

<li><a href="Gastroenterology" title="Gastroenterology">Gastroenterology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Hepatology" title="Hepatology">Hepatology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Geriatrics" title="Geriatrics">Geriatrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a></li>

<li><a href="Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">Infectious diseases</a></li>

<li><a href="Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a></li>

<li><a href="Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a></li>

<li><a href="Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and<br>gynaecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Gynecologic_oncology" title="Gynecologic oncology">Gynecologic oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Maternal%E2%80%93fetal_medicine" title="Maternal–fetal medicine">Maternal–fetal medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li>

<li><a href="Urogynecology" title="Urogynecology">Urogynecology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolescent_medicine" title="Adolescent medicine">Adolescent medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Obstetric_anesthesiology" title="Obstetric anesthesiology">Obstetric anesthesiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurosurgical_anesthesia" title="Neurosurgical anesthesia">Neurosurgical anesthesiology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Dermatology" title="Dermatology">Dermatology</a></li>

<li><a href="Disaster_medicine" title="Disaster medicine">Disaster medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergency_medicine" title="Emergency medicine">Emergency medicine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mass_gathering_medicine" title="Mass gathering medicine">Mass gathering medicine</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_medicine" title="Family medicine">Family medicine</a> / <a href="General_practice" title="General practice">General practice</a></li>

<li><a href="Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Intensive_care_medicine" title="Intensive care medicine">Intensive care medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Narcology" title="Narcology">Narcology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Occupational medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li>

<li><a href="Oral_medicine" title="Oral medicine">Oral medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain management</a></li>

<li><a href="Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative care</a></li>

<li><a href="Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Neonatology" title="Neonatology">Neonatology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Phlebology" title="Phlebology">Phlebology</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</a> (PM&R)</li>

<li><a href="Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Prison_healthcare" title="Prison healthcare">Prison healthcare</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a>

<ul><li><a href="Addiction_psychiatry" title="Addiction psychiatry">Addiction psychiatry</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Reproductive medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Venereology" title="Venereology">Venereology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">Sleep medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Sports_medicine" title="Sports medicine">Sports medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplantation medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical<br>education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Medical_school" title="Medical school">Medical school</a></li>

<li><a href="Bachelor_of_Medicine%2C_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Bachelor_of_Medical_Sciences" title="Bachelor of Medical Sciences">Bachelor of Medical Sciences</a></li>

<li><a href="Master_of_Medicine" title="Master of Medicine">Master of Medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Master_of_Surgery" title="Master of Surgery">Master of Surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Medical_Scientist_Training_Program" title="Medical Scientist Training Program">Medical Scientist Training Program</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allied_health_professions" title="Allied health professions">Allied health</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_oncology" title="Molecular oncology">Molecular oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li>

<li><a href="Rural_health" title="Rural health">Rural health</a></li>

<li><a href="Therapy" title="Therapy">Therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Physician" title="Physician">Physician</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chief_physician" title="Chief physician">Chief physician</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw external" title="commons:Medicine">Commons</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"></span></span> Wikiproject</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <a href="Portal%3AMedicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Portal</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"></span></span> <a href="Outline_of_medicine" title="Outline of medicine">Outline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q327092#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1409" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q327092#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1409" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Medizintechnik"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4074676-8">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85014237">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12652633m">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12652633m">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="biomedicínské inženýrství"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph135799&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX530941">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007282392705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/1bf53470-006f-4098-bf69-26e39da53f48">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-06-13" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Biomedical_engineering&oldid=1295421680">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>